Unit VI: American Intervention: Grenada & Nicaragua (6/1)

Corresponding text found on p362-366 of Brief History of the Caribbean.

Grenada

Despite massive foreign aid, conditions in Grenada deteriorated
Public services decayed, no improvement in education and health, unemployment rising by 1983
PRG increasing unpopular; Bishop seen as one to blame; Coard had resigned CC and Politburo in '82

Bishop examines factory

Sept 1983 - 3-day meeting; Central Committee decided Bishop remain PM; Coard brought back to chair Politburo; Bishop concedes
During later trip to Europe, Bishop reconsiders; seeks support outside NJM
Bishop expelled from CC and Politburo; dismissed as PM; placed under house arrest

About a week later, people protest Bishop arrest (10,000 Grenadians -- about 10% of pop)
3,000 ppl march to house and release Bishop; leads supporters to take PRA headquarters

PRA Headquarters: Fort Rupert

Central Committee then sends 3 armored personnel carriers to retake Fort Rupert from Bishop
Bishop and supporters surrender; Bishop and 4 members of Cabinet executed on orders from CC
Army announces formation on new Revolution Military Council

Oct 21, 1983 - OECS requests help from US to intervene in Grenada
Oct 25 - Operation Urgent Fury - 1,900 US soldiers land in Grenada with 300 Caribbean soldiers
Prime Minister Chambers of Trinidad objects to action

Urgent Fury

US justifies with OECS request and need to protect American expats and students
1,500 Grenadian troops and a small number of Cuban troops resisted
US troops occupy and pacify Grenada in 3 days

US troops leave by Dec '83; new elections in Dec '84; Constitution of 1974 reinstated
US puts substantial foreign aid into Grenada to support new govt; roads and health care improve


Nicaragua

With FSLN victorious, former Somoza National Guard members reorganize near Honduran border
Opposition gains support of ethnic minorities from Nicaraguan Caribbean coast denied autonomy
1981 - Ronald Reagan elected Pres of US; suspends aid to Nicaragua; signs directives in late '81 to fund Nicaraguan counterrevolutionaries

Contras organized against the FSLN, funded by the United States

Contras, supported by CIA, begin two front war against Sandinista govt; FSLN begins draft

War against Contras exhausts much of Sandinista govt resources
US heavily invests in Contras between 1983 and 1987; Iran-Contra Affair

Not the most accurate explanation of Iran-Contra but funny

1986-87 - Esquipulas Process established to create peace in Central America (ES, Nic, Guat)
Laid out plans to
  - end hostilities
  - promote national reconciliation
  - democratize nations
  - hold free elections
  - stop funding irregular military forces
  - control arms flow
  - assist refugees

1990 - FSLN & Ortega defeated in elections by US supported and financed UNO party

Odd coalition: UNO wins the 1990 elections in Nicaragua

Unit VI: Jamaican Moderation & the Beginning of Cuba's 'Special Period' (6/2)

Corresponding text found on p332-333 and p249-253of Brief History of the Caribbean.

Jamaica 

Seaga victory in 1980 saw reversal of many of the policies of 'democratic socialism'
Increased aid from the US with the Reagan Administration

Edward Seaga with Ronald Reagan

Jamaican budget crisis stabilized
JLP govt cut spending on many social programs
Many govt industries de-nationalized
Fall in oil prices in 1986 helped cut Jamaica fuel import bill
By 1987-88, economy grew significantly

Despite improvements, many Jamaicans upset with large cuts in education, health, housing
By late-1980's, Manley speaking of restoring some PNP policies but not returning to democratic socialism
Feb 1989 - PNP wins elections; Manley wins 3rd term as PM; appointed Cabinet from PNP moderates
Continued policies of de-nationalization; declared Jamaica too dependent on foreign investment to create a socialist state
Combating drug trafficking became major problem for Jamaica during 1980s and 1990s
March 1992 - Manley retired due to health; succeeded by PJ Patterson as PM/ head of PNP


Cuba

1989 - Eastern bloc collapses
1991 - Soviet Union dissolved
Trade with Soviet bloc dissolves ($9 billion in 1991 -- $750 million in 1993)
Oil shipments from Soviet Union (13 million tons -- 1.8 million)
Without raw materials from trade and oil from Soviet Union, numerous factories closed and transportation across Cuba almost ceased
Early 90s - dramatic reductions in govt spending on education and health; food shortages
Beginning of the "Special Period"
  - Fuel allotments cut
  - Electricity rationed
  - Farmers return to using oxen
  - urban dwellers sent to work fields
  - Govt distributed bicycles for transport

Trailer for Documentary on the 'Special Period'

In addition to societal reforms, economic reforms needed
  - legalized US dollar
  - eliminated subsidies on many goods and services
  - restored farmer's markets
  - opened up to joint ventures with foreign capital (mostly tourism)
  - no longer financed military support abroad

Castro determined to hold onto power; Socialismo o Muerte (Socialism or Death)

Underground markets thrived
Infrastructure crumbled; govt services barely functioned
Govt repression of dissidents grew more strident

Decaying Havana infrastructure

United States government saw Special Period as opportunity to crush Castro govt
  - Torricelli Act -- 1992 ; strengthened economic embargo on Cuba
  - Helms-Burton Act -- 1996 ; codified embargo, allowed lawsuits for use of expropriated property

1994 saw increase in Cuban refugees arriving in US via rafts

Conditions were so bad that many attempted to leave Cuba any way that they could

Aug 1994 - Castro declares govt will no longer attempt to prevent Cubans fleeing
US adopted new 'wet foot/dry foot' policy
Two notable incidents
  - Cuban fighter jets shot down two small civilian US aircraft over intl waters searching for rafters
  - Elian Gonzalez

The Elian Gonzalez story simply highlighted the problems of the US-Cuba relationship

Unit VI: Civil Upheaval: The Invasion of Panama & the Coup in Trinidad (6/3)

Invasion of Panama

Read 'Background' through 'Timeline' for a good overview of the US invasion of Panama from Wikipedia

CNN coverage of Operation Just Cause

President George HW Bush on the American invasion of Panama

Was it justified? Was it a 'Just Cause'?


Coup in Trinidad

Corresponding text found on  p 333-339 in Brief History of the Caribbean.

Background in Trinidad since Independence
  - importance of oil sector in Trinidad (minimum 10% of citizens employed)
  - Williams and the PNM since Chagauramas

Dr Eric Williams

  - Feb 1970 - Black Power Insurrection begins; marches, strikes, civil unrest; PNM splintering
                      Williams declares state of emergency in April
                       Junior army officers mutiny; attempt coup; stopped by Coast Guard
  - 1973 - Arab oil embargo quadruples world oil prices
  - tax revenue used to nationalize industries, subsidize goods, increase public works projects
  - 1975 - nationalizes all independent oil companies still in Trinidad; nationalizes airline industry,
                 sugar industry, water and utilities

The Texaco Refinery at Pointe-a-Pierre, Trinidad became a part of what is now Petrotrin

  - by early 1980s, govt employed almost 2/3 of all workers; more socialism than Jamaica under Manley
  - Williams appeared to become more autocratic and disconnected
  - March 1981 - Dr Eric Williams died; George Chambers becomes PM and head of PNM
  - By 1982, plunging oil prices drive economy into depression; unemployment soars; farm production poor
  - Trinidad ran large trade deficits
  - Chambers govt forced to raise taxes, cut spending, devalue currency, lower subsidies
  - Dec 1986 -NAR wins parliamentary elections; 1st defeat for PNM; ANR Robinson new PM
  - Robinson govt continued expense cutting measures; de-nationalized industries;
           attempted to restructure economy

ANR Robinson (right) shakes hands with fellow NAR member Basdeo Panday (left) - circa 1986

  - unified NAR began to splinter; Basdeo Panday forms UNC in April 1989
  - like Jamaica, Trinidad began to experience problems with drug trafficking in 80s and 90s

The quick and dirty on the 1990 coup from Wikipedia

Unique documentary on the 1990 coup in Trinidad

What were some of the conditions that laid the foundation for social upheaval?

Social pluralism?

Global economics?

IMF?